GREENWICH, N.Y. — A group of American citizens protest the government in response to a new tax that they feel treats them unfairly. Sound familiar? No, we are not talking about the lead-up to the American Revolution, but the Whiskey Rebellion. The Whiskey Rebellion came about as a result of a new tax on whiskey and proved to be a test of the U.S. government’s newly granted authority.
Whiskey became an important product in early America following the American Revolution. During the Colonial era, other liquors like rum, brandy, and gin were commonly drunk, but much of these kinds of alcohol were imported via British traders. The American Revolution disrupted the trade of these products, and Americans turned to domestically produced whiskey to quench their thirst for liquor.
Grains, especially corn, were plentiful and when mixed, mashed, and fermented could be distilled into whiskey. Whiskey consumption grew as settlement extended further west where there was more land for corn production. In fact, corn-made whiskey became a uniquely American product as whiskies in Europe were typically made with potatoes and other grains. In early America, whiskey was drunk daily by many and was also commonly used as medicine.
The beginnings of the Whiskey Rebellion started in 1791. The federal government was founded in 1787 with the ratification of the U.S. Constitution and George Washington was elected the first U.S. president in 1789. One of the federal government’s first challenges was to tackle the national debt. The national government assumed and consolidated the debts incurred by individual states during the American Revolution. Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton had already placed tariffs on imported goods to generate revenue to whittle down the debt.
Seeking a new source of revenue, and not wanting to raise tariffs more, Hamilton advocated for a tax on American-made whiskey. The Distilled Spirits Tax of 1791 placed an excise tax on the manufacture of whiskey and was the first tax on a domestic product in the United States. Under the tax, whiskey producers paid anywhere from six to eighteen cents per gallon depending on how much a producer made. Federally-appointed tax collectors would visit producers yearly to register their stills and collect payments, which had to be paid in cash. Leaders thought this would be considered a “luxury tax,” but they failed to realize how essential an item whiskey was on early America’s frontier.
In the early 1790s America’s western frontier referred to lands along and just over the Allegheny and Appalachian Mountains ranges. Here subsistence farmers gradually settled the western parts of established states like Pennsylvania and Virginia, and territories that would become states like Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee. For most farmers in these regions, whiskey was not just a prevalent product, but one that was relied on to make a living.
Many frontier farmers grew grains like corn, wheat, and rye for home consumption and for sale. However, selling these crops outside of a local area proved difficult as they had to travel longer distances over poorly maintained and dangerous mountain roads. Due to these challenges, families often distilled excess grain into whiskey which lasted longer, traveled easier, and fetched a higher price at markets. Whiskey was also a form of currency on the frontier. Since families had little to no cash, bartering was relied on and whiskey was a featured trade item in this system.
Farmers were disgruntled by the new whiskey tax for several reasons. Since whiskey was such a common item made by many, the tax was viewed as an attack on their livelihood. The regressive nature of the tax meant that small farmers, who made less whiskey than larger commercial distillers further east, would be paying more in taxes. Taxes had to be paid in cash, which families did not always have. Also, farmers had to register their stills and tax collectors had to report unregistered stills for fines. In short, the frontier farmers saw the tax as a threat to their way of life and the bartering system on which they depended. Already upset by government inaction on issues like tensions with Native American tribes and an inability to trade on the Mississippi River, the whiskey tax was another action that made frontier dwellers feel isolated from the rest of the country.
From 1791-1794 hostility to the whiskey tax and its enforcement steadily grew in frontier regions. At first, resistance was more passive as distillers simply refused to pay the tax. The inability to collect the tax greatly frustrated Secretary Hamilton and led President Washington to issue a proclamation in 1792 condemning the interference of whiskey tax collection.
As time went on protests by “whiskey boys” became more agitated and violent. Tax collectors were routinely intimidated, threatened, or assaulted by various means. Tarring and feathering became a common demonstration tactic employed to harm and humiliate tax officials. Local residents who paid the tax or helped tax collectors faced similar persecution as they were deemed “collaborators.” Though resistance occurred in many rural areas, opposition was most vehement in southwestern Pennsylvania which was home to one-fourth of the U.S.’s whiskey stills.
The Whiskey Rebellion reached a fever pitch in July 1794 in the area around Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. A federal marshal named David Lenox was sent to the region to serve writs to delinquent distillers ordering them to report to Philadelphia for federal court hearings. Serving as his guide was a local tax collector named John Neville. On July 15th Lenox and Neville went to the home of a distiller named William Miller to deliver the writs. Arguments ensued and the pair were soon met by a group of armed whiskey boys who chased them away firing some shots at them in their flight.
In the wake of the altercation, a mob of rebels marched to Neville’s home, Bower Hill, the next day. The confrontation led to Neville firing on the crowd, mortally wounding one of the whiskey boys. After the event Neville’s family was evacuated and a small force of ten soldiers from nearby Fort Fayette was called to protect the home
Enraged by what had transpired a mob of around 500-700 whiskey boys led by a Revolutionary War veteran named Major James McFarlane returned to Bower Hill on July 17th calling for Neville’s resignation and the surrender of the home. Tensions built and a firefight broke out between the soldiers barricaded in the home and the mob outside. The skirmish lasted an hour and eventually, the outnumbered soldiers surrendered. However, the fight left Major McFarlane dead and the crowd burned Bower Hill in retaliation.
As news of the skirmish spread throughout the Pennsylvania countryside so did violent outbursts in response. Emboldened by the death of Major McFarlane rebel leaders called for a larger uprising and by August 1st upwards of 7,000 rebels had gathered at Braddock’s Field outside of Pittsburgh with plans to overtake the city.
News of the events in western Pennsylvania reached President Washington and leaders in Philadelphia, which was the U.S. capitol at the time. Knowing something needed to be done Washington met with his cabinet and released a proclamation in early August denouncing the rebels’ actions as treason and calling on them to return to their homes peacefully. After receiving permission from the Supreme Court, Washington also invoked the Militia Act of 1792 to raise an army of state militiamen to put down the rebellion. Soon an army of almost 13,000 troops was comprised of men from Pennsylvania, Maryland, New Jersey, and Virginia.
Seeking one last attempt at a peaceful solution Washington sent the attorney general and two Pennsylvania politicians to negotiate with leaders of the “rebel assembly,” the rebellion’s governing body. Though a number of the assembly members voted to “submit” and end the rebellion a consensus was not reached and Washington ordered the army to head to the region in mid-September. Starting at Carlisle, PA the army was led by President Washington and General Henry Lee. Washington traveled with the army for about half of the month-long journey before heading back to Philadelphia making it the first and only time a sitting U.S. president led soldiers in an active military campaign.
In the end, the Whiskey Rebellion that burned like a fire in the summer ended with a flicker in October 1794. The seizure of Pittsburgh never panned out. Most rebels fled when word of the larger and better-trained federal army coming their way reached them. By the time the army arrived in western PA, they did not find a region that was in open rebellion as they had envisioned. Federal forces occupied the area for about a month and made around 150 arrests. Some of these arrested men were intensely grilled by Alexander Hamilton himself who had long been bent on punishing anyone involved in the rebellion.
Of those that were arrested a lack of evidence meant only 20 individuals were indicted for their participation. Only ten stood trial for their role in the rebellion, and only two were deemed guilty of treason. Seeking benevolence, in 1795 President Washington pardoned the two convicted men. A few years later in 1799, President John Adams pardoned a whiskey rebel leader named David Bradford who had escaped to New Orleans officially closing the book on the Whiskey Rebellion.
The tax on whiskey that had triggered the rebellion stayed in place, but it remained unpopular and continued to be difficult to collect. The tax was repealed in 1802 under President Thomas Jefferson’s administration. Overseeing the repeal of the tax was Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin, a Pennsylvania businessman and former moderate member of the Whiskey Rebellion’s rebel assembly.
Though the Whiskey Rebellion was largely confined to Pennsylvania, the event is considered a significant marker in the young United States’ growth. The rebellion challenged the authority of the nation’s Constitution and federal government. President Washington and the nation’s leaders were able to successfully meet the moment showing that the government not only had the authority to make laws and implement taxes, but also to enforce them. Washington expressed this success to General Lee in a letter following the end of the Whiskey Rebellion saying they had upheld the “blessings of that Revolution which, at much expense of blood & treasure, constituted us a free and independent nation.”
Chandler Hansen grew up and lives in Easton, NY. He is a graduate of Gordon College where he earned a bachelor’s degree in History. He serves as a writer and editor for Morning Ag Clips.
